The practice of education has its roots in the deep layers of human civilization. It appeared with the first people. Children were brought up without any pedagogy, not even suspecting its existence. The science of education was formed much later, when such sciences as, for example, geometry, astronomy, and many others already existed. By all indications, it belongs to the number of young, developing branches of knowledge. Primary generalizations, empirical information, conclusions from everyday experience cannot be considered a theory, they are only the origins, prerequisites of the latter. It is known that the root cause of the emergence of all scientific branches is the needs of life. The time has come when education began to play a very prominent role in people's lives. It turned out that society progresses faster or slower, depending on how the upbringing of the younger generations is put in it. There was a need to generalize the experience of education, to create special educational institutions to prepare young people for life.

Already in the most developed states of the ancient world - China, India, Egypt, Greece - serious attempts were made to generalize the experience of education, to isolate theoretical principles. All knowledge about nature, man, society was then accumulated in philosophy; the first pedagogical generalizations were also made in it.

Ancient Greek philosophy became the cradle of European education systems. Its most prominent representative, Democritus (460-370 BC), created generalizing works in all areas of contemporary knowledge, without disregarding education. His winged aphorisms, which have survived the centuries, are full of deep meaning: “Nature and education are similar. Namely, upbringing rebuilds a person and, transforming, creates nature”; “Good people become more by exercise than by nature”; “Teaching produces beautiful things only on the basis of labor.” Theorists of pedagogy were the great ancient Greek thinkers Socrates (469–399 BC), his student Plato (427–347 BC), Aristotle (384–322 BC), in the works of which the most important ideas and provisions related to the upbringing of a person, the formation of his personality are deeply developed. Having proved their objectivity and scientific consistency over the centuries, these provisions act as the axiomatic principles of pedagogical science. A peculiar result of the development of Greek-Roman pedagogical thought was the work "The Education of an Orator" by the ancient Roman philosopher and teacher Marcus Quintilian (35–96). The work of Quintilian was for a long time the main book on pedagogy, along with the writings of Cicero, he was studied in all rhetorical schools.

At all times, there has been folk pedagogy, which has played a decisive role in the spiritual and physical development of people. The people have created original and surprisingly viable systems of moral and labor education. V Ancient Greece, for example, only one who planted and grew at least one olive tree was considered an adult. Thanks to this " folk tradition the country was covered with abundantly fruitful olive groves.

During the Middle Ages, the church monopolized the spiritual life of society, directing education in a religious direction. Squeezed in the grip of theology and scholasticism, education has largely lost the progressive orientation of ancient times. From century to century, the unshakable principles of dogmatic teaching, which existed in Europe for almost twelve centuries, were honed and consolidated. And although among the leaders of the church there were philosophers educated for their time, for example, Tertullian (160–222), Augustine (354–430), Aquinas (1225–1274), who created extensive pedagogical treatises, pedagogical theory did not go far ahead.

The Renaissance gave a number of bright thinkers, humanist teachers, who proclaimed the ancient saying “I am a man, and nothing human is alien to me” as their slogan. Among them are the Dutch Erasmus of Rotterdam (1466-1536), the Italian Vittorino de Feltre (1378-1446), the French Francois Rabelais (1494-1553) and Michel Montaigne (1533-1592).

Pedagogy took a long time to shoot a modest corner in the majestic temple of philosophy. Only in the 17th century it emerged as an independent science, remaining connected with philosophy by thousands of threads. Pedagogy is inseparable from philosophy, if only because both of these sciences deal with man, study his being and development.

Separation of pedagogy from philosophy and its design v scientific system is associated with the name of the great Czech teacher Jan Amos Comenius (1592–1670). His main work "Veli what didactics”, published in Amsterdam in 1654, is one of the first scientific and pedagogical books. Many of the ideas expressed in it have not lost their relevance or their scientific significance today. The principles, methods, and forms of teaching proposed by Comenius, such as the class-lesson system, became the basis of pedagogical theory. “Learning should be based on the knowledge of things and phenomena, and not memorization of other people's observations and testimonies about things”; “Hearing must be combined with vision and the word with the activity of the hand”; it is necessary to teach "on the basis of evidence through, external senses and reason." Are not these generalizations of the great teacher in tune with our time?

Unlike Ya.A. Comenius, the English philosopher and educator John Locke (1632–1704) concentrated his main efforts on the theory of education. In his main work “Thoughts on Education”, he sets out his views on the education of a gentleman - a self-confident person who combines broad education with business qualities, elegance of manners with firmness of moral convictions.

An irreconcilable struggle against dogmatism, scholasticism and verbalism in pedagogy was waged by the French materialists and enlighteners of the 18th century. D: Diderot (1713-1784), K. Helvetius (1715-1771), P. Holbach (1723-1789) and especially J.J. Rousseau (1712–1778). "Of things! Of things! he exclaimed. “I will never stop saying that we attach too much importance to words: with our talkative upbringing, we only make talkers.”

The democratic ideas of the French enlighteners largely determined the work of the great Swiss educator Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746–1827). “Oh, beloved people! he exclaimed. “I see how low, terribly low you stand, and I will help you up!” Pestalozzi kept his word, offering teachers a progressive theory of teaching and moral education of students.

Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776–1841) is a major but controversial figure in the history of pedagogy. In addition to significant theoretical generalizations in the field of the psychology of education and didactics (a four-tier model of a lesson, the concept of nurturing education, a system of developmental exercises), he is known for works that have become the theoretical basis for introducing discriminatory restrictions in the education of the broad masses of workers.

“Nothing is permanent, except change,” taught the outstanding German teacher Friedrich Adolf Wilhelm Diesterweg (1790–1886), who studied many important problems, but most of all, the study of the contradictions inherent in all pedagogical phenomena.

The works of outstanding Russian thinkers, philosophers and writers V.G. Belinsky (1811–1848), A.I. Herzen (1812–1870), N.G. Chernyshevsky (1828–1889), N.A. Dobrolyubov (1836–1861). The visionary ideas of L.N. Tolstoy (1828–1910), the works of N.I. Pirogov (1810–1881). They sharply criticized the estate school and called for a radical transformation of public education.

World fame for Russian pedagogy was brought by K.D. Ushinsky (1824–1871).

Ushinsky's main work "Pedagogical Anthropology" began to be published in 1867. A year later, the first volume "Man as an Object of Education" was published, after some time - the second. The third was left unfinished.

In the pedagogical system of Ushinsky, the doctrine of the goals, principles, and essence of education occupies a leading place. He notices a simple law-paradox: "Education, if it wants a person to be happy, should educate him not for happiness, but prepare him for the work of life." Upbringing, being improved, can far expand the limits of human strength: physical, mental and moral. But "no matter how pure and lofty the goals of education, it must still have the power to achieve these goals."

The leading role belongs to the school, the teacher. “In education, everything must be based on the personality of the educator, because the educational power flows only from the living source of the human personality. No statutes and programs, no artificial organism of an institution, no matter how cunningly thought out, can replace the individual in the matter of education.

Step by step, Ushinsky is revising the entire pedagogy. It requires a complete reorganization of the education system based on the latest scientific achievements: "... one pedagogical practice without theory is the same as medicine in medicine." On the basis of the latest achievements in psychology, he makes detailed recommendations on methods for the formation of observation, attention, will, memory, and emotions. Reveals ways to implement the didactic principles of consciousness, visibility, systematic, strength of learning. Builds the concept of developmental learning.

Ushinsky is far ahead of his era in understanding the role of labor education: having broken the ice of established views, he proposes to make labor a full-fledged educational tool.

In his youthful diary, Ushinsky formulated the goal of his life: "To do as much good as possible for my fatherland." He reached his goal.

At the end of XIX - beginning of XX p. intensive research" on pedagogical problems began in the USA, where the center of pedagogical thought is gradually shifting. The initiative conquerors of the New World, not burdened by dogmas, without prejudice, began to study pedagogical processes in modern society and quickly achieved tangible results. General principles were formulated, laws of human education were derived, and developed and effective educational technologies have been introduced that provide each person with the opportunity to achieve the projected goals relatively quickly and quite successfully.

The most prominent representatives of American pedagogy are John Dewey (1859–1952), whose work had a significant impact on the development of pedagogical thought throughout the Western world, and Edward Thorndike (1874–1949), who became famous for his studies of the learning process and the creation of even pragmatically mundane, but very efficient technologies.

Russian pedagogy of the post-October period took the path of developing ideas for educating a person in a new society. S.T. took an active part in the creative search for a new pedagogy. Shatsky (1878–1934), who headed the First Experimental Station for Public Education of the People's Commissariat of Education of the RSFSR. The first authors teaching aids in pedagogy, in which the tasks of the socialist school were set and solved, were P.P. Blonsky (1884–1941), who wrote the books Pedagogy (1922), Fundamentals of Pedagogy (1925), and A.P. Pinkevich (1884–1939), whose Pedagogy was published in the same years.

The pedagogy of the socialist period was famous for the works of N.K. Krupskaya, A.S. Makarenko, V.A. Sukhomlinsky. Theoretical searches of N.K. Krupskaya (1869–1939) concentrated around the problems of the formation of a new Soviet school, the organization of extracurricular educational work, and the emerging pioneer movement. A.S. Makarenko (1888-1939) put forward and tested in practice the principles of creating and pedagogical leadership of a children's team, methods of labor education, studied the problems of the formation of conscious discipline and the upbringing of children in the family. V.A. Sukhomlinsky (1918–1970) explored the moral problems of educating young people. Many of his didactic advice and apt observations retain their significance in understanding modern ways of developing pedagogical thought and school.

The practice of education has its roots in the deep layers of human civilization. Education appeared together with the first people, but the science of it was formed much later, when such sciences as geometry, astronomy and many others already existed.

The root cause of the emergence of all scientific branches is the needs of life. The time has come when education began to play an important role in people's lives. It turned out that society develops faster or slower, depending on how the upbringing of the younger generations is put in it. There was a need to generalize the experience of education, to create special educational institutions to prepare young people for life. In the most developed states of the Ancient World - China, India, Egypt, Greece - attempts were made to generalize the experience of education, to isolate its theoretical principles.

Ancient Greek philosophy became the cradle of European education systems. Its most prominent representative Democritus(460–370 BC) wrote: “Nature and nurture are alike. Namely, upbringing rebuilds a person and, transforming, creates nature ... Good people become more from upbringing than from nature.

Theorists of pedagogy were major ancient Greek thinkers Socrates(469-399 BC), Plato(427-347 BC), Aristotle(384-322 BC). In their works, the most important ideas and provisions related to the upbringing of a person and the formation of his personality are deeply developed. A peculiar result of the development of Greco-Roman pedagogical thought was the work "Education of the Orator" by the ancient Roman philosopher and teacher Mark Fabius Quintiliana(35-96 AD).

During the Middle Ages, the church monopolized the spiritual life of society, directing education in a religious direction. Education at this time lost the progressive orientation of ancient times. From century to century, the unshakable principles of dogmatic education, which existed in Europe for almost 12 centuries, were honed and consolidated. And although among the leaders of the church there were enlightened philosophers - Tertullian(160–222), Augustine(354–430), Aquinas(1225–1274), who created extensive pedagogical treatises, pedagogical theory did not receive much development.

The Renaissance gave a number of humanist educators - this Erasmus of Rotterdam(1466–1536), Vittorino de Feltre(1378–1446), Francois Rabelais(1494–1553), Michel Montaigne(1533–1592).

Pedagogy has long been a part of philosophy, and only in the XVII century. emerged as an independent science. And today, pedagogy is connected with philosophy by thousands of threads. Both of these sciences deal with man, study his life and development.

The separation of pedagogy from philosophy and its design into a scientific system is associated with the name of the great Czech teacher Jan Amos Comenius(1592–1670). His main work, The Great Didactics (1654), is one of the first scientific and pedagogical books. Many of the ideas expressed in it have not lost their relevance and scientific significance today. Proposed by Ya.A. Comenius principles, methods, forms of education, for example, the principle of natural conformity, class-lesson system, entered the golden fund pedagogical theory.

English philosopher and educator John Locke(1632–1704) concentrated his main efforts on the theory of education. In his main work, "Thoughts on Education", he outlined his views on the education of a gentleman - a man who is self-confident, combining broad education with business qualities, elegance of manners with firm convictions.

The history of pedagogy includes the names of such famous educators of the West as Denis Diderot(1713–1784), Jean Jacques Rousseau(1712–1778), Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi(1746–1827), Johann Friedrich Herbart(1776–1841), Adolf Diesterweg(1790–1841).

The ideas of education were actively developed in Russian pedagogy, they are associated with names V.G. Belinsky(1811–1848), A.I. Herzen(1812–1870), N.G. Chernyshevsky(1828–1889), L.N. Tolstoy(1828–1910).

Brought world fame to Russian pedagogy Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky(1824–1871). He made a revolution in theory and pedagogical practice. In the pedagogical system of Ushinsky, the doctrine of the goals, principles, and essence of education occupies a leading place. “Education, if it wants a person to be happy, should educate him not for happiness, but prepare him for the work of life,” he wrote. Upbringing, being improved, can far push the limits of human forces - physical, mental and moral.

According to Ushinsky, the leading role belongs to the school, the teacher: “In education, everything should be based on the personality of the educator, because the educational power flows only from the living source of the human personality. No statutes and programs, no artificial organism of an institution, no matter how cunningly thought out, can replace the individual in the matter of education.

K.D. Ushinsky revised all pedagogy and demanded a complete reorganization of the education system based on the latest scientific achievements. He believed that “pedagogical practice alone without theory is the same as witchcraft in medicine.”

At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. Intensive research on pedagogical problems has begun in the United States: general principles have been formulated, patterns of human education have been deduced, effective educational technologies have been developed and implemented that provide each person with the opportunity to quickly and successfully achieve projected goals.

The most prominent representatives of American pedagogy are John Dewey(1859–1952), whose work had a marked influence on the development of pedagogical thought throughout the Western world, and Edward Thorndike(1874–1949), famous for his studies of the learning process, the creation of effective educational technologies.

The name of an American teacher and doctor is well known in Russia Benjamin Spock(1903–1998). Asking the public, at first glance, a secondary question: what should prevail in the upbringing of children - strictness or kindness, he stirred up minds far beyond the borders of his country. The answer to this simple question is not yet clear.

At the beginning of the XX century. In world pedagogy, the ideas of free upbringing and development of the child's personality began to actively spread. An Italian teacher has done a lot to develop and popularize them. Maria Montessori(1870–1952). In The Method of Scientific Pedagogy, she argued that one should make the most of the opportunities childhood. Self-study should be the main form of primary schooling. Montessori made up didactic materials for individual study by younger students of the grammar of their native language, geometry, arithmetic, biology and other subjects. These materials are structured so that the child can independently detect and correct their mistakes. Today in Russia there are many supporters and followers of the Montessori system. Complexes "kindergarten - school" are successfully operating, where the ideas of free upbringing of children are being introduced into life.

An adherent of the ideas of free education in Russia was Konstantin Nikolaevich Wentzel(1857–1947). He created one of the world's first declarations of the rights of the child (1917). In 1906–1909 in Moscow, the "House of the Free Child" created by him successfully operated. In this original educational institution, the main actor was a child. Educators and teachers had to adapt to his interests, help in the development of natural abilities and talents.

Russian pedagogy of the post-October period followed the path of its own comprehension and development of ideas for educating a person in a new society. Active participation in the creative search for a new pedagogy, S.T. Shatsky (1878–1934), P.P. Blonsky (1884–1941), A.P. Pinkevich (1884–1939). The pedagogy of the socialist period was famous for the works of N.K. Krupskaya, A.S. Makarenko, V.A. Sukhomlinsky. Theoretical searches Nadezhda Konstantinovna Krupskaya(1869–1939) concentrated around the problems of the formation of a new Soviet school, the organization of extracurricular educational work, and the emerging pioneer movement. Anton Semenovich Makarenko(1888-1939) put forward and tested in practice the principles of creating and pedagogical leadership of a children's team, methods of labor education, studied the problems of the formation of conscious discipline and the upbringing of children in the family. Vasily Aleksandrovich Sukhomlinsky(1918-1970) focused his research around the moral problems of educating young people. Many of his didactic tips and apt observations retain their significance in understanding the modern ways of developing pedagogical thought and the school at the stage of a radical restructuring of society.

In the 1940s-1960s. actively worked in the field of public education Mikhail Alekseevich Danilov(1899–1973). He created the concept of elementary school (“The Tasks and Features of Primary Education”, 1943), wrote the book “The Role of the Primary School in the Mental and Moral Development of Man” (1947), and compiled many guides for teachers. Russian teachers still rely on them today.

Among the primary schools, a special place is occupied by the so-called small-class schools, which are created in small towns and villages, where there are not enough students to create full classes and one teacher is forced to simultaneously teach children of different ages. The issues of education and upbringing in such schools were developed by M.A. Melnikov, who compiled the “Desk Book for the Teacher” (1950), which outlines the basics of the methodology for differentiated (i.e., separate) education.

In the 1970s-1980s. active development of the problems of primary education was carried out in a scientific laboratory under the guidance of Academician L.V. Zankov. As a result of the research, a new system of teaching younger students was created, based on the priority of developing the cognitive abilities of students.

In the late 1980s In Russia, a movement began for the renewal and restructuring of the school. This was expressed in the emergence of the so-called pedagogy of cooperation (Sh.A. Amo-nashvili, S.L. Soloveichik, V.F. Shatalov, N.P. Guzik, N.N. Paltyshev, V.A. Karakovsky, etc.) . The whole country knows the book of the Moscow teacher primary school S.N. Lysenkova "When it's easy to learn", which describes the methods of "commented management" of the activities of younger students based on the use of diagrams, supports, cards, tables. S.N. Lysenkova also created the methodology of "anticipatory learning".

In recent decades, tangible progress has been made in a number of areas of pedagogy, primarily in the development of new technologies for preschool and primary school education. Modern computers, equipped with high-quality educational programs, help to cope with the tasks of managing the educational process, which allows you to achieve high results with less energy and time. Progress has also been made in the field of creating more advanced methods of education. Research and production complexes, author's schools, experimental sites are notable milestones on the path of positive change. The new Russian school is moving in the direction of humanistic personality-oriented education and training.

However, pedagogical science does not yet have a single common view on how children should be educated. From ancient times to the present day, there are two diametrically opposed views on education: 1) children need to be raised in fear and obedience; 2) You need to raise children with kindness and affection. If life categorically rejected one of the approaches, then it would have ceased to exist long ago. But this is the whole difficulty: in some cases, people brought up in strict rules, with harsh views on life, with stubborn characters and uncompromising views, bring great benefits to society, in others - soft, kind, intelligent, God-fearing and philanthropic people. Depending on the conditions in which the people live, what policy the states have to pursue, traditions of education are created. In those societies that have long been living a calm, prosperous life, humanistic tendencies of education prevail. In societies that are constantly fighting, a tough upbringing based on the authority of the elder and the unquestioning obedience of the younger prevails. That is why the question of how to raise children is the prerogative not so much of science as of life itself.

Authoritarian (based on blind obedience to power) education has a fairly convincing scientific justification. So, I.F. Herbart, putting forward the position that "wild playfulness" is inherent in a child from birth, demanded strictness from education. He considered threats, supervision of children, orders and prohibitions as methods of education. For children who violate the order, he recommended the introduction of penalty magazines at school. To a large extent, under the influence of Herbart, an upbringing practice developed, which included a whole system of prohibitions and punishments: children were left without lunch, put in a corner, placed in a punishment cell, the names of the offenders were recorded in a penal journal. Russia was among the countries that largely followed the precepts of authoritarian education.

As an expression of protest against authoritarian education, the theory of free education, put forward by J.Zh. Rousseau. He and his followers urged to respect the growing person in the child, not to constrain, but to stimulate in every possible way his natural development in the course of education. Today, this theory has resulted in a powerful current of humanistic pedagogy and has gained numerous supporters around the world.

Among the Russian teachers who actively advocated the humanization of education are L.N. Tolstoy, K.M. Wentzel, K.D. Ushinsky, N.I. Pirogov, P.F. Lesgaft, S.T. Shatsky, V.A. Sukhomlinsky and others. Thanks to their efforts, Russian pedagogy made significant concessions in favor of children. But humanistic transformations have not yet been completed, the Russian school continues to multiply them.

Humanistic Pedagogy is a system of scientific theories that affirms pupils as active, conscious, equal participants in the educational process, developing according to their capabilities. From the standpoint of humanism, the ultimate goal of education is that each pupil can become a competent subject of activity, cognition and communication, a free, amateur person. The degree of humanization of the educational process is determined by the extent to which this process creates the prerequisites for the self-realization of the individual, the disclosure of all the natural inclinations inherent in it, its abilities for freedom.

Humanistic pedagogy is focused on the individual. Her features: shifting priorities to the development of mental, physical, intellectual, moral and other spheres of the personality instead of mastering the amount of information and organizing a certain range of skills and abilities; focusing efforts on the formation of a free, independently thinking and acting personality, a humanist citizen capable of making an informed choice in a variety of educational and life situations; providing appropriate organizational conditions for the successful achievement of the reorientation of the educational process.

The humanization of the educational process should be understood as a rejection of authoritarian pedagogy with its pedagogical pressure on the individual, which denies the possibility of establishing normal human relations between a teacher and a student, as a transition to a personality-oriented pedagogy that attaches absolute importance to the personal freedom and activity of students. To humanize this process means to create such conditions in which the student cannot help but study, cannot study below his or her abilities, cannot remain an indifferent participant in educational affairs or an outside observer of a stormy current life. Humanistic pedagogy stands for adapting the school to the student, providing an atmosphere of comfort and “psychological safety”.

Humanistic pedagogy requires: 1) a human relationship to the pupil; 2) respect for his rights and freedoms; 3) presenting feasible and reasonably formulated demands to the pupil; 4) respect for the position of the pupil even when he refuses to comply with the requirements; 5) respect for the child's right to be himself; 6) bringing to the consciousness of the pupil the specific goals of his education; 7) non-violent formation of the required qualities; 8) refusal of corporal and other punishments degrading the honor and dignity of a person; 9) recognition of the right of an individual to a complete rejection of qualities that, for whatever reason, contradict her convictions (humanitarian, religious, etc.).

The creators of humanistic pedagogical systems are known all over the world - M. Montessori, R. Steiner, S. Frenet. The directions they created are now often referred to as pedagogy.

Basic concepts of pedagogical science

Pedagogy got its name from the Greek words "pai-dos" - a child and "ago" - to lead. In literal translation, "paydago-gos" means "tutor". A teacher in Ancient Greece was a slave who literally took the child of his master by the hand and accompanied him to school. The teacher in this school was often another slave, only a scientist.

Gradually, the word "pedagogy" began to be used in a more general sense to refer to the art of "leading a child through life", that is, educating him and teaching him, directing spiritual and bodily development. Often, next to the names of people who later became famous, the names of the teachers who raised them are also called. Over time, the accumulation of knowledge led to the emergence of a special science of raising children. The theory has been cleansed of concrete facts, made the necessary generalizations, and singled out the most essential relations. So pedagogy became the science of raising and educating children.

This understanding of pedagogy persisted until the middle of the 20th century. And only in recent decades, there has been an understanding that not only children, but also adults need qualified pedagogical guidance.

The shortest, most general, and at the same time relatively accurate definition of modern pedagogy is the science of educating a person. The concept of "education" is used here in the broadest sense, including education, training, development. The expansion of the limits of the concept of "education" conflicts with the historical name of science. Therefore, new terms are increasingly used in the world pedagogical lexicon - "androgogy" (from the Greek "andros" - a man and "ago" - to lead) and "anthropogogy" (from the Greek "anthropos" - a person and "ago" - to lead) .

At all times, teachers have been looking for the best ways to help people use the opportunities given to them by nature, the formation of new qualities. For thousands of years, the necessary knowledge was accumulated bit by bit, pedagogical systems were created, tested and rejected one after another, until the most viable, most useful ones remained. The science of education is also developing, the main task of which is the accumulation and systematization of scientific knowledge about the education of a person.

Reflecting on the purpose of science, the great Russian scientist D.I. Mendeleev came to the conclusion that every scientific theory has two main and final goals - foresight and benefit. No exception to general rule and pedagogy. Its function is to learn the laws of upbringing, education and training of people and, on this basis, indicate to pedagogical practice the best ways and means to achieve the goals set. The theory equips teachers-practitioners with professional knowledge about the peculiarities of the educational processes of people of different age groups, social formations, the ability to predict, design and implement the educational process in various conditions, to evaluate its effectiveness. The latest technologies for teaching, education and upbringing, effective methods are also born in pedagogical laboratories.

When defining education and the science of it - pedagogy, we will proceed from the position that neither society nor education “in general” exists, but there is a specific society at a certain stage of historical development and there is education, the direction and level of which objectively reflect the achieved level of development of society. Despite the fact that pedagogy deals with "eternal" problems, its subject is specific: it is educational activities carried out in educational institutions. Pedagogy is considered as an applied science, directing its efforts to the prompt solution of the problems of upbringing, education, and training that arise in society.

Sources of development of pedagogy: centuries-old practical experience of education, fixed in the way of life, traditions, customs of people, folk pedagogy; philosophical, social science, pedagogical and psychological works; current world and domestic practice of education; data from specially organized pedagogical research;

experience of innovative teachers offering original ideas and educational systems in today's rapidly changing environment.

The emergence and development of pedagogy

The practice of education has its roots in the deep layers of human civilization. It appeared with the first people. Children were brought up without any pedagogy, not even suspecting its existence. The science of education was formed much later, when such sciences as, for example, geometry, astronomy, and many others already existed. By all indications, it belongs to the number of young, developing branches of knowledge. Primary generalizations, empirical information, conclusions from everyday experience cannot be considered a theory, they are only the origins, prerequisites of the latter.

It is known that the root cause of the emergence of all scientific branches is the needs of life. The time has come when education began to play a very prominent role in people's lives. It turned out that society progresses faster or slower, depending on how the upbringing of the younger generations is put in it. There was a need to generalize the experience of education, to create special educational institutions to prepare young people for life.

Already in the most developed states of the ancient world - China, India, Egypt, Greece - serious attempts were made to generalize the experience of education, to isolate theoretical principles. All knowledge about nature, man, society was then accumulated in philosophy; the first pedagogical generalizations were also made in it.

Ancient Greek philosophy became the cradle of European education systems. Its most prominent representative, Democritus (460-370 BC), created generalizing works in all areas of contemporary knowledge, without disregarding education. His winged aphorisms, which have survived the centuries, are full of deep meaning: “Nature and education are similar. Namely, upbringing rebuilds a person and, transforming, creates nature”; “Good people become more by exercise than by nature”; “Teaching produces beautiful things only on the basis of labor.” Theorists of pedagogy were major ancient Greek thinkers Socrates (469-399 BC), his student Plato (427-347 BC), Aristotle (384-322 BC), in the works of which the most important ideas and provisions related to the upbringing of a person, the formation of his personality are deeply developed. Having proved their objectivity and scientific consistency over the centuries, these provisions act as the axiomatic principles of pedagogical science. A peculiar outcome of the development of Greek-Roman pedagogical thought was the work "The Education of an Orator" by the ancient Roman philosopher and teacher Mark Quintilian (35-96). The work of Quintilian was for a long time the main book on pedagogy, along with the writings of Cicero, he was studied in all rhetorical schools.

At all times, there has been folk pedagogy, which has played a decisive role in the spiritual and physical development of people. The people have created original and surprisingly viable systems of moral and labor education. In ancient Greece, for example, only one who planted and grew at least one olive tree was considered an adult. Thanks to this folk tradition, the country was covered with abundantly fruitful olive groves.

During the Middle Ages, the church monopolized the spiritual life of society, directing education in a religious direction. Squeezed in the grip of theology and scholasticism, education has largely lost the progressive orientation of ancient times. From century to century, the unshakable principles of dogmatic teaching, which existed in Europe for almost twelve centuries, were honed and consolidated. And although among the leaders of the church there were philosophers educated for their time, for example, Tertullian (160-222), Augustine (354-430), Aquinas (1225-1274), who created extensive pedagogical treatises, pedagogical theory did not go far ahead.

The Renaissance gave a number of bright thinkers, humanist teachers, who proclaimed the ancient saying “I am a man, and nothing human is alien to me” as their slogan. Among them are the Dutch Erasmus of Rotterdam (1466-1536), the Italian Vittorino de Feltre (1378-1446), the French Francois Rabelais (1494-1553) and Michel Montaigne (1533-1592).

Pedagogy took a long time to shoot a modest corner in the majestic temple of philosophy. Only in the 17th century it emerged as an independent science, remaining connected with philosophy by thousands of threads. Pedagogy is inseparable from philosophy, if only because both of these sciences deal with man, study his being and development.

The separation of pedagogy from philosophy and its formation into a scientific system is associated with the name of the great Czech teacher Jan Amos Comenius (1592-1670). His main work, The Great Didactics, published in Amsterdam in 1654, is one of the first scientific and pedagogical books. Many of the ideas expressed in it have not lost their relevance or their scientific significance today. Proposed by Ya.A. Comenius principles, methods, forms of education, such as the class-lesson system, became the basis of pedagogical theory. “Learning should be based on the knowledge of things and phenomena, and not memorization of other people's observations and testimonies about things”; “Hearing must be connected with vision and the word with the activity of the hand”; it is necessary to teach "on the basis of evidence through the external senses and reason." Are not these generalizations of the great teacher in tune with our time?

Unlike Ya.A. Comenius, the English philosopher and educator John Locke (1632-1704) concentrated his main efforts on the theory of education. In his main work “Thoughts on Education”, he sets out his views on the education of a gentleman - a self-confident person who combines broad education with business qualities, elegance of manners with firmness of moral convictions.

An irreconcilable struggle against dogmatism, scholasticism and verbalism in pedagogy was waged by the French materialists and enlighteners of the 18th century. D. Diderot (1713-1784), K. Helvetius (1715-1771), P. Holbach (1723-1789) and especially J.J. Rousseau (1712-1778). "Of things! Of things! he exclaimed. “I will never stop saying that we attach too much importance to words: with our talkative upbringing, we only make talkers.”

The democratic ideas of the French enlighteners largely determined the work of the great Swiss teacher Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827). “Oh, beloved people! he exclaimed. “I see how low, terribly low you stand, and I will help you up!” Pestalozzi kept his word, offering teachers a progressive theory of teaching and moral education of students.

Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-1841) is a major but controversial figure in the history of pedagogy. In addition to significant theoretical generalizations in the field of the psychology of education and didactics (a four-tier model of a lesson, the concept of nurturing education, a system of developmental exercises), he is known for works that have become the theoretical basis for introducing discriminatory restrictions in the education of the broad masses of workers.

“Nothing is permanent, except change,” taught the outstanding German teacher Friedrich Adolf Wilhelm Diesterweg (1790-1886), who studied many important problems, but most of all, the study of the contradictions inherent in all pedagogical phenomena.

The works of outstanding Russian thinkers, philosophers and writers V.G. Belinsky (1811-1848), A.I. Herzen (1812-1870), N.G. Chernyshevsky (1828-1889), N.A. Dobrolyubova (1836-1861). The visionary ideas of L.N. Tolstoy (1828-1910), the works of N.I. Pirogov (1810-1881). They sharply criticized the estate school and called for a radical transformation of public education.

World fame for Russian pedagogy was brought by K.D. Ushinsky (1824-1871). (A little more about him)

At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. Intensive research on pedagogical problems began in the USA, where the center of pedagogical thought is gradually shifting. Unburdened by dogmas, the enterprising conquerors of the New World, without prejudice, began to study the pedagogical processes in modern society and quickly achieved tangible results. General principles were formulated, patterns of human education were derived, effective education technologies were developed and implemented that provide each person with the opportunity to achieve the projected goals relatively quickly and quite successfully.

The most prominent representatives of American pedagogy are John Dewey (1859-1952), whose work had a significant impact on the development of pedagogical thought throughout the Western world, and Edward Thorndike (1874-1949), who became famous for his studies of the learning process and the creation of at least pragmatically mundane, but very efficient technologies.

Russian pedagogy of the post-October period took the path of developing ideas for educating a person in a new society. S.T. Shatsky (1878-1934), who headed the First Experimental Station for Public Education of the People's Commissariat of Education of the RSFSR, took an active part in the creative search for a new pedagogy. P.P. Blonsky (1884-1941), who wrote the books Pedagogy (1922), Fundamentals of Pedagogy (1925), and A.P. Pinkevich (1884-1939), whose "Pedagogy" was published in the same years.

The pedagogy of the socialist period was famous for the works of N.K. Krupskaya, A.S. Makarenko, V.A. Sukhomlinsky. Theoretical searches of N.K. Krupskaya (1869-1939) concentrated around the problems of the formation of a new Soviet school, the organization of extracurricular educational work, and the emerging pioneer movement. A.S. Makarenko (1888-1939) put forward and tested in practice the principles of creating and pedagogical leadership of a children's team, methods of labor education, studied the problems of the formation of conscious discipline and the upbringing of children in the family. V.A. Sukho-mlinsky (1918-1970) explored the moral problems of educating young people. Many of his didactic advice and apt observations retain their significance in understanding modern ways of developing pedagogical thought and school.

Pedagogical theories of modern times

Pedagogical theories and ideas of modern times were based on the best humanistic traditions and absorbed the advanced ideas of our time. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. the first scientific pedagogical theories are created.

The foundations of the formation of didactics were the works of the German teacher Wolfgang Rathke (1571–1635). Rathke graduated from the university in Rostock, where he studied theology and philosophy, but abandoned the career of a priest and became engaged in teaching. Having studied the experience of German urban schools, W. Rathke advocated reforming the learning process, changing the principles and content of education. According to the teacher, the transformations should be based on the new principles of education, which were formulated by him almost simultaneously with Ya.A. Comenius. Thus, V. Rathke insisted that the upbringing process should be organized in accordance with the laws of nature, while he believed that all children are equal from birth and are like a “blank slate” that is filled in by an adult in accordance with the goals of upbringing.

V. Rathke believed that teaching should take into account the peculiarities of the process of cognition, in which, on the basis of the perception of objects and phenomena, these perceptions are comprehended. In this regard, he considered it necessary to widely use various forms of visualization, follow from the concrete to the abstract, systematically conduct exercises and repetitions, and maintain students' interest in knowledge and learning. At the same time, Rathke remained a supporter of the classical form of teaching - lectures. Analyzing the possibilities of schooling, the teacher was a follower of the humanists and advocated teaching in his native language; based on the analytical-sound method of teaching literacy, he created a number of textbooks and readers for the German school. In school management, V. Rathke, recognizing the priority of pedagogical control, insisted on the need to make all schools state-owned, made high demands on the methodological training of teachers and advocated social status teachers.

The greatest figure in modern pedagogy was the Czech educator and philosopher Jan Amos Comenius (1592–1670), who developed many pedagogical problems and created the first scientific theory in the history of pedagogy, didactics, subordinated to the idea of ​​the all-round development of the personality. Ya.A. Comenius was born in the Czech Republic in the family of a priest of the community of Czech brothers, he received his primary education at a brotherly school, then studied at a Latin school, graduated from the Herborn Academy and the University of Heidelberg. All his life he was engaged in educational activities, created a number of pedagogical works and textbooks for the school.

The main work of his life is the "Universal Council for the Correction of Human Affairs", in which, as in his other works, the main idea is panso-phia - universal wisdom, which means "knowledge of all things" that really exist in the world. According to the teacher, the possibility of improving social life and delivering society from injustice lies in improving the system of upbringing and education of people, since this will allow each person and, as a result, the whole world to improve. In this regard, the teacher throughout his life tried to create a program of general education and a comprehensive method of personality formation, based on a continuous process of improving everyone and everything through creative work. In the twentieth century this postulate of Ya.A. Comenius was developed in the theory and practice of lifelong education.

The idea of ​​the universality of education in the theory of Ya.A. Comenius has not only a philosophical, but also a practical orientation, its implementation is developed in detail in the Great Didactics and the Rules of a Well-Organized School. In these works, the teacher outlined the universal theory of "teaching everyone everything", based on the principle of natural conformity. Man, as part of nature, is subject to its universal laws; accordingly, education should be determined by the natural nature of things and allow learning quickly, easily and firmly. Based on this, the education of a person should begin at an early age and continue through adolescence. To implement this idea, Ya.A. Comenius, for the first time in the history of pedagogy, developed a scientifically substantiated integral system of schools in accordance with age periodization and outlined the content of education at each level of education. The teacher advocated universal education and believed that in any well-organized society there should be schools for the education of children of both sexes.

The first step in the project of Ya.A. Comenius had a maternal school (from birth to 6 years). At the stage of preschool education, when a child learns information about natural phenomena, people's lives, receives basic knowledge of geography, astronomy, the teacher called labor and moral education the main areas of education. At the stage of primary education (from 6 to 12 years old), the school of the native language follows, in which children in their native language are introduced to a fairly wide range of knowledge that goes beyond the traditional framework of modern teacher education. Ya.A. Comenius proposed to include in the program of this school the native language, arithmetic, the beginnings of geometry, geography, "the beginnings of cosmography", the beginnings of social and political knowledge, crafts, psalms, catechism, and other sacred texts. The mother tongue school was intended for the joint education of all children. Secondary school in the Ya.A. Comenius is a gymnasium, or a Latin school (from 12 to 18 years old), which should be opened in every city for the education of young men who have achieved success in education. The teacher included the "seven liberal arts", physics, geography, history, the beginnings of medical knowledge, etc. in the gymnasium program. In the structure of the academy, traditional university faculties were singled out, and the purpose of its creation was to communicate pansophic knowledge.

In the organization of training Ya.A. Comenius initially preferred the subject principle and was the author of a number of textbooks on physics, geometry, geodesy, geography, astronomy, and history. Subsequently, he came to the conclusion that a person should receive a system of knowledge about the world, and created a textbook of a new type - "The Open Door of Languages ​​and All Sciences", in which the phenomena of the surrounding world were given in their integrity and unity from the positions of various sciences. The learning process should be based on clear principles.

1. Ya.A. Comenius promoted visual learning, which was reflected in the “golden rule” of didactics: “Everything that is possible should be provided for perception by sight, heard by hearing, smells by smell, subject to taste by taste, accessible to touch by touch. If any objects can be perceived by several senses at once, let them be grasped at once by several senses.

3. Education should evoke in children the joy of mastering educational material. The teacher required to have educational material"according to the steps of age, so that only that is offered for study that is accessible to the faculty of perception." In this regard, the clarity of teaching was of particular importance, consisting in a clear explanation of all provisions without much delving into details, but in a clearly traceable logic.

4. The strength of knowledge is based on the independence and activity of students in the learning process. “In my students, I always develop independence in observation, in speech, in practice and in application, as the only basis for achieving solid knowledge,” Ya.A. Comenius.

Allocated by Ya.A. Comenius principles served as the core of a new universal class-lesson system of education, which the teacher theoretically substantiated and proposed the rules for its implementation in practice. Until today, the class-lesson system remains the basis of school education, which can be considered an indisputable merit of Comenius. The key concepts of this system are: a) a class, which implies a constant number of students of approximately the same age and level of knowledge, who, under the general guidance of a teacher, strive for one common educational goal for all; b) a lesson, which implies a clear correlation of all types of educational work with a specific time period ( academic year, quarter, holidays, school week, school day - from 4 to 6 lessons, lesson, break). An important link in the developed Ya.A. The process of consolidating and repeating knowledge becomes the Comenius system, for which the teacher suggested using regular homework and exams.

Issues of education and training Ya.A. Comenius considered in inseparable unity, giving priority to the learning process. The teacher paid attention to the study of the main categories of education - goals, content and methods. According to the principle of conformity to nature, education should be based on the analysis of the laws of a person's spiritual life and the coordination of all pedagogical influences with them. The purpose of education, according to Comenius, is to prepare a person for eternal life. He saw the path to eternal bliss in the knowledge of the external world, in the ability to control things and oneself, in raising oneself to the source of all things - God. Thus, the Comenius system singled out the components of education - scientific education, moral and religious education. The teacher saw the goal of education not only in the acquisition of knowledge, but also in the system of moral qualities, of which he considered justice, courage and moderation to be the most important. In the process of education Ya.A. Comenius assigned a decisive role to the personal example of the teacher, and at school he attached great importance to discipline.

Pedagogical theories of the Enlightenment

Pedagogical ideas of the late 17th - early 18th centuries. proceed from the need to change education on the basis of the implementation of the "natural rights" of a person - freedom, equality, fraternity - through education. Thus, the English philosopher, educator and statesman John Locke (1632–1704), who received an excellent education at Oxford University, argued the natural equality of people, believed that upbringing on a “blank slate” inflicts the character and personal qualities of a person. The teacher wrote about this: "Nine-tenths of people become what they are, thanks to their upbringing." Thus, Locke, one of the first educators-thinkers, raised the question of the limits of the possibilities of education, which are limited both by individual abilities and the living conditions of the individual. The concept of upbringing and education by D. Locke is set forth in his treatise “Thoughts on Education” (1693), which contains a program for the all-round development of a gentleman, bourgeois, and business man of the New Age.

The main goal of education, according to D. Locke, is to prepare a person for a happy and reasonable life, in which he would be free and would not infringe on the freedom of others. To achieve this goal, the teacher involves mental, moral, physical, labor education. The education of a gentleman should be carried out by a trained tutor in the family, since "a school is a collection of ill-bred boys." The priority for Locke is moral education, the main task of which is the development of character: "It is necessary to train a boy, but this should be in the background, only as an aid to the development of more important qualities." To such qualities, he attributed restraint, courage, self-control, benevolence, generosity, good manners, etc. The teacher attributed persuasion, example, exercise, discipline, encouragement, censure, etc. to the means of moral education.

Determining the content of mental education, D. Locke proceeded from the principle of utilitarianism: a gentleman must be given the knowledge necessary for "business activities in the real world." The teacher included reading, writing, native language, arithmetic, geography, finance, law, history, astronomy, French, accounting, dancing, horse riding in the program of mental education. In addition, good manners are developed on the basis of learning music, dancing, etiquette, fencing; the practical orientation of education requires knowledge of crafts and light work, which forms a personality and makes a person independent. The learning process, according to Locke, should be based on the natural curiosity of the child. At the same time, the pupil must be prepared not only for the conduct of commercial affairs, but also for the realization of his civic responsibility, adapted to a virtuous life. In the interpretation physical education the teacher paid great attention to hardening, combined with physical labor, since health is the key to human happiness. D. Locke argued that taking into account the natural inclinations and the specifics of individual characteristics will allow the mentor to maximize the possibilities of education.

The French philosopher-educator, writer Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) considered it necessary to change the social order based on unjust inequality through education and proper education, which is the backbone of any form of government and therefore valuable to society; well-being of the state and every person depends on properly organized education. He outlined his theory of "free natural education" in the treatise "Emil, or On Education" (1762).

Rejecting the traditional system of education, J.-J. Rousseau believed that upbringing would contribute to the development of the child only if it acquired a natural nature-like character, if it was connected with the natural development of the individual. Education is given to a person by nature as an internal development of the abilities and organs of a person, education from people is learning how to use this development, education from the side of things is the acquisition by a person of his own experience regarding the objects that give him education. All these factors, according to the teacher, should act in concert. A child is born sensually receptive, receives impressions through the senses, as his susceptibility increases as he grows, knowledge about the environment expands under the influence of adults. This approach J.-J. Rousseau was fundamentally new for the pedagogy of that time, since the traditional school rejected both individual and age differences.

For Rousseau, education is the art of developing the true freedom of man. The desire for nature in the teacher is manifested in the rejection of the artificiality and attractiveness of everything natural, simple, immediate. In the pedagogical system of J.-J. Rousseau places the child at the center of the pedagogical process. However, the educator must accompany the child in all his experiences, direct his formation, but never impose his will on him. In teaching, it is important not to adapt knowledge to the level of the student, but to correlate them with his interests and experience. It is important to organize the transfer of knowledge in such a way that the child himself takes on the task of obtaining it. The teacher believed that different education systems were needed for boys and girls: nature assigns an active, leading role to men in the life of society, therefore Rousseau attaches more importance to their upbringing; women should be brought up differently, because they have a different purpose in society, endowed with opposite properties and inclinations. The teacher argued that “the natural state of a woman is dependence,” so a girl should be brought up for a man, able to adapt to her husband’s opinions and judgments, and accept his religion.

In the interpretation of training and education, J.-J. Rousseau argues that they are inseparable, since they are connected by a single goal: to teach a child about life, to raise a person who is independent, sane, friendly to people, who feels confident in any situation. The upbringing of a child should not take place in a school, which, being part of a corrupted society, is not capable of forming a natural person, but in the bosom of nature, in a country house under the guidance of an enlightened mentor and teacher. In the most general form, the requirements for the personality of the educator were reduced to broad knowledge in the sciences and crafts, knowledge of the laws of "human nature" and the individual characteristics of the pupil, possession of the secrets of pedagogical art.

J.-J. Rousseau proposes such an organization of the upbringing process, which is based on the age periodization he deduced, where tasks and means of upbringing were provided for each age period. At an early age (from birth to 2 years), the main goal of education should be physical development, which goes along with the development of the senses and speech. From a very early age, it is necessary to give the child freedom in movement, it is unacceptable to accelerate the process of mastering speech.

The teacher calls the age from 2 to 12 years the period of “sleep of the mind” and considers the main goal of education to be “the development of external feelings”. J.-J. Rousseau expressed the conviction that during this period of his development, the child is already aware of himself as a person, is relatively independent, but is not able to reason, therefore, in education, instructions should be abandoned. During this period, it is necessary to continue the physical education of the child, intellectual development is not yet available to him, but he can still acquire knowledge on his own, by observing wildlife and his own experience. The mentor is obliged not to teach science, but to skillfully and thoughtfully create situations that, awakening in the child a desire to acquire this or that knowledge, would force him to independently discover them. It is necessary to gradually initiate him into the relationship of a person with the outside world and one should not give the child books, except for "Robinson Crusoe", in which an example of "natural education" is brilliantly described. It is especially important to impress upon him that to be free means to yield to necessity.

At the age of 12–15, according to J.-J. Rousseau, a person enters the most favorable time of life, the most suitable for a full-fledged intellectual and labor education. The organization of mental education is based on natural curiosity. Rousseau proposed a research way of obtaining knowledge, which is possible when the object or phenomenon being studied is of interest to the child. The teacher abandoned the subject construction of education and proceeded from the cognitive interests of the pupil, teaching him the ability to independently apply knowledge in life. At first, the child's curiosity is caused by things and phenomena that directly surround him, therefore, first of all, he must be introduced to geography and astronomy. The teacher attached particular importance to work, which not only cultivates virtue, but also allows you to maintain an independent position in society. In labor education, the child learns to respect the common man, begins to appreciate the results of labor. The child must invent and create the tools necessary for the craft on his own, then he will be not just a craftsman, but a researcher, a thinker.

From 15 to 22 years old, the “period of storms and passions” begins, at this age J.-J. Rousseau assumes the moral education of the young man in society. According to the teacher, such qualities as a sense of duty, citizenship, patriotism, compassion for people should be brought up. Returning to society, the young man remains free inside, because in previous periods independence from social prejudices and delusions was formed in him. Ways of moral education is communication with good people and the study of history, in which there are enough examples of noble, moral, patriotic behavior. By the age of 22-24, natural education should be completed, a person begins an independent life, he should marry, focusing on the advice of a mentor in choosing a bride.

The views of J.-J. Rousseau had a great influence on the development of the theory and practice of education in the XVIII-XIX centuries. and continue to be relevant to this day.

Ushinsky's contribution to the development of pedagogy

World fame for Russian pedagogy was brought by K.D. Ushinsky (1824-1871). A little history about him.

He lived a short but surprisingly fruitful life. The same thing that Comenius in Moravia, Pestalozzi in Switzerland, Ushinsky made in Russia - a revolution in theory, a revolution in pedagogical practice. Ushinsky shared the fate of his great predecessors, drank, like them, the full cup of persecution, persecution, envy, and persecution. Fate reveals amazing constancy when it wants to exalt someone: it combines high thoughts with poor health, the spirit of a titan settles in a frail body, the age gives a short and difficult one.

Ushinsky's father - a retired lieutenant colonel, a participant in the war of 1812, served the tsar and the fatherland in Tula and Poltava, and then in Olonets, Vologda. On March 2, 1824, his son was born in Tula. Soon the Ushinsky family moved to Ukraine in Novgorod-Seversky, where his father was appointed a district judge.

Here, on the banks of the Desna, the future great teacher spent his teenage years. He studied at the gymnasium, where he had to go four miles every morning. Unforgettable, wonderful time. About the years of teaching (a rare case), Ushinsky recalls warmly. The young student was especially enthusiastic about his director, Professor I. Gilyakovsky. “There is no doubt,” he will write later, “that a lot depends on the general routine in the institution, but the main thing will always depend on the personality of the direct educator, standing eye to eye with the pupil; the influence of the personality of the educator on the young soul is that educational force, which cannot be replaced either by a textbook, or by moral maxims, or by a system of punishments and rewards.

In 1840, Ushinsky entered the law faculty of Moscow University. Learn brilliantly. But “his health,” recalls the historian Yu. Rekhnevsky, “even then was very unreliable, and city life had a detrimental effect on him. At the end of the academic year, usually pale, thin and spitting blood, he was going with his fellow countrymen to his homeland, to Little Russia, which he loved very much ... "

At the age of twenty, Ushinsky graduated from the university and was left to prepare the master's exam. In June 1844, the university council awarded him the degree of Candidate of Law, and Ushinsky continued his scientific internship.

He is already 22. So far, not a word has been said about pedagogy - the main business of his life. There are thoughts, but Ushinsky does not dare to express them: he looks closely, compares, checks himself again and again.

In 1846, he was appointed acting professor of cameral sciences at the department of the encyclopedia of jurisprudence, state law and finance science at the Yaroslavl Demidov Juridical Lyceum. The Demidov Lyceum was named after its founder, one of the breeders of the Demidovs. In terms of their importance, the lyceums were immediately behind the universities, there were few of them: Tsarskoye Selo near St. Petersburg, Pushkin studied there; Nezhinsky in Ukraine, finished by Gogol; Rishelevsky in Odessa.

Practical pedagogical activity began. The accessibility of the presentation of difficult questions, the strict logic of evidence, the polite attitude towards students soon made the name of the young professor the most popular in the Lyceum. And his brilliant work "On cameral education" (1848) put forward Ushinsky in the first ranks of scientists of that time.

There is a good position, salary. Many people would be happy with that. Ushinsky is not like that. The energy that needs to be released is directed to self-education. Ushinsky deeply studies philosophy, studies languages. Soon he is fluent in English, French, German. Reads Descartes, Rousseau, Diderot, Holbach, Bacon, Mill, Kant, Hegel in the original. He is trying to find an answer to the question that occupied him at that time: what is consciousness?

Not everyone likes the independence and originality of the young professor's thinking. The trustee of the lyceum P. Demidov writes that Ushinsky has "great talents and excellent knowledge, but with great pride ...". In addition, careless in speeches, harsh in judgments.

The decision of those in power is not original - under supervision! It was then that the bitter lines in the diary were born: “Do I really have to die in this prison, where there are not even walls to break my head?”

Almost losing his mind from the inquisitorial harassment and petty chicanery, Ushinsky in September 1849 submits a letter of resignation to the authorities of the lyceum.

He is humiliated, but not broken. And he does not blame himself for what happened, because he knows that the circumstances to which he could not and will never be able to adapt are to blame.

But you have to live somehow. A family appeared. Ushinsky sends petitions all over Russia. He writes to thirty district schools, looking for places. It is not accepted anywhere. A professor at the Demidov Lyceum is asking for a miserable salary? Something is wrong here...

Now he is unemployed. Interrupted by translations, reviews in magazines. Only a year and a half later, with great difficulty, he manages to get a job as head of the department of foreign religions. In this most boring of posts, Ushinsky stayed until January 1, 1854.

Service in the department exhausted only the body. The soul lived with lofty thoughts. Ushinsky seriously analyzes social relations and comes to the conclusion that a lot depends on education. Like other outstanding teachers, he sees the ways of social reorganization in the improvement of school work.

A chance meeting put an end to the ordeal. A former colleague at the Demidov Lyceum, knowing Ushinsky's outstanding pedagogical abilities, invites him to teach Russian literature at the Gatchina Orphanage Institute. In 1855, Ushinsky was appointed class inspector.

In the life of every great scientist, there will certainly be a happy accident. She was in the fate of Ushinsky. One day he drew attention to two large cabinets. What was in them - no one knew, because these cabinets had been sealed for twenty years. Ushinsky asked the watchman to open the cupboards. Before him was a treasure: a complete collection of pedagogical literature, the legacy of the former inspector of the institute, Pestalozzi's student E. Gugel.

Following the fresh traces of what he read, Ushinsky writes a hot, passionate, perhaps his best article - "On the Benefits of Pedagogical Literature." Deepest ideas, polished formulations.

The article is a huge success.

Ushinsky is inspired, and warmly begins to develop his pedagogical views. What does he write about? There is, perhaps, not a single issue that he would not touch - deeply, critically, with interest.

The teacher tells new lesson; the students, knowing that they will find him in the book, try only to look at the teacher and do not hear a single word of what he says. Retelling the same thing for the twentieth time, the teacher, of course, is not able to speak with such enthusiasm that arouses the attention of listeners. He cares only that the majority of his students know the subject, and how this knowledge comes to them is completely indifferent to him!

No, that's not how you should learn. You need to know everything about those you want to teach. “If pedagogy wants to educate a person in all respects, then it must first recognize him in all respects too.” Ushinsky's diagnosis is accurate. Recommendations are verified and indisputable: to make educational work as interesting as possible for the child, without turning this work into entertainment. Learning is interesting, easy, even fun, but serious and deep.

Ushinsky, already a well-known and famous teacher, is invited to take the post of class inspector at the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens. With the advent of Ushinsky, a fresh stream burst into the musty atmosphere of the "coffee", "blue" classes. The pupils began to read Gogol, Lermontov, and other writers whom they had never heard of before. They began to ask teachers questions, which was strictly forbidden.

Didn't like the innovation. A conflict broke out with the head of the institute, M. Leontyeva. Accusations of free-thinking, disrespectful attitude towards superiors, godlessness and even immorality are pouring in from all sides. Yes, Ushinsky was unrestrained, but profoundly right. “All Russian education was given into the hands of an idiot and a buzouver,” he wrote about the appointment of Admiral E. Putyanin as Minister of Education.

Ushinsky admits outrageous things. He received the institute priest Grechulovich in a dressing gown! He says that he "censes all sorts of vulgarities." Yes, that's something else. During the exams in the presence of the Empress (!) I sat!

It was impossible to simply dismiss Ushinsky. His name has become too popular in Russia. They found a “plausible” pretext: for health reasons, send him abroad for treatment and study of school affairs. In fact, it was an exile that lasted 5 years.

Ushinsky visited Switzerland, Germany, France, Belgium and Italy.

Abroad, he wrote a number of excellent pedagogical works, among them the textbook "Native Word", which survived 187 reprints. More than ten million copies of Ushinsky's books were published before the revolution - an unheard of, unprecedented figure!

Ushinsky came to pedagogy as a reformer. And just in time. The Russian school experienced a protracted stagnation. It was crushed by officials from education, who saw in every new idea a manifestation of freethinking. There were few hunters for transformations, no one wanted to risk their careers and well-being.

Ushinsky does not think about it. To the ideas that engulfed him, he gives himself entirely, without a trace.

Ushinsky's main work "Pedagogical Anthropology" began to be published in 1867. A year later, the first volume "Man as an Object of Education" was published, after some time - the second. The third was left unfinished.

In the pedagogical system of Ushinsky, the doctrine of the goals, principles, and essence of education occupies a leading place. He notices a simple law-paradox: "Education, if it wants a person to be happy, should educate him not for happiness, but prepare him for the work of life." Upbringing, being improved, can far expand the limits of human strength: physical, mental and moral. But "no matter how pure and lofty the goals of education, it must still have the power to achieve these goals."

The leading role belongs to the school, the teacher. “In education, everything should be based on the personality of the educator, because the educational power flows only from the living source of the human personality. No statutes and programs, no artificial organism of an institution, no matter how cunningly thought out, can replace the individual in the matter of education.

Step by step, Ushinsky is revising the entire pedagogy. He requires a complete reorganization of the education system based on the latest scientific achievements: "... one pedagogical practice without theory is the same as medicine in medicine." On the basis of the latest achievements in psychology, he makes detailed recommendations on methods for the formation of observation, attention, will, memory, and emotions. Reveals ways to implement the didactic principles of consciousness, visibility, systematic, strength of learning. Builds the concept of developmental learning.

Ushinsky is far ahead of his era in understanding the role of labor education: having broken the ice of established views, he proposes to make labor a full-fledged educational tool.

In his youthful diary, Ushinsky formulated the goal of his life: "To do as much good as possible for my fatherland." He reached his goal.

Bibliography

For the preparation of this work, materials from the site were used.

The word "pedagogy" arose in ancient times and over the past millennia sounded in different languages, taking a strong place in the common vocabulary. They are used not only teachers specialists, but also people far from the teaching profession. The word “pedagogy” owes its ambiguity to such a wide distribution. It has two meanings:

Pedagogy - an area of ​​practical activity, art, craft;

Pedagogy is a field of scientific knowledge, a science.

In the first sense, the word "pedagogy" began to be used much earlier than in the second. Pedagogy as a science arose many centuries later. Therefore, pedagogy is a relatively young branch of knowledge among such ancient sciences as, for example, philosophy, medicine, geometry, and astronomy.

The need to prepare children for life, to pass on the accumulated experience to them, arose in mankind in ancient times. This was carried out not only in the course of the natural course of life in the family, community, when the elders taught, showed, carried away the younger ones with their example, introducing them to work, instilling the necessary skills.

With the development of culture, with changes in economic life caused by the transition to a slave-owning formation, there is a need to create specially organized institutions for the education and upbringing of the younger generation. As a response to this need, a school appears (Ancient East, approximately 5th millennium BC). The first schools were opened by clergy at temples and monasteries, since religion was the bearer of the ideals of education. Then schools of various types were created, which differed in goals, content and teaching methods. The content of education in ancient schools was widely represented: literacy, mathematics, music, ethics, ritual ceremonies, physical exercises, poetics, logic, etc. , even slaves), as well as cultural and ethnic traditions that existed in a particular country. There were schools with a "professional bias", which trained scribes, artists, teachers.

The history of pedagogy includes two educational systems that developed in ancient times (VI-IV centuries BC) in Ancient Greece: Spartan and Athenian. Sparta, due to social conditions, was a military state for three centuries. Therefore, the Spartan system was based on the idea of ​​raising a young man, strong in spirit, physically developed, well-versed in military affairs. The upbringing of males was under the jurisdiction of the state, strictly regulated and controlled. Public education began from the first days of life. Newborns were examined by the elders, weak and ugly children were thrown into the abyss, and strong ones were given to the nurse. Nurses were the first professional educators in Greece. They taught the child to live in harsh conditions: not to be afraid of the dark, to show moderation in food, not to scream or cry from pain, cold, etc. Public education, designed for 12 years, began at the age of 7. It consisted of a military training system and included physical exercises, gymnastics, competitions, training trips, exemplary battles, etc. intellectual development was reduced to a minimum: the rudiments of reading and writing.

In democratic Athens, a different system of education has developed, aimed at developing the mind, moral qualities, and body. Children were taught to read, write, count, play musical instruments (cithara, lyre). Particular importance was attached to introducing the child to art and culture. The program organically combined poetry, dance, music, reading of classical literature (the works of Homer, Aesop, Sophocles, etc.). Gymnastics, running, wrestling, discus throwing, spear throwing, as well as participation in sports competitions contributed to the education of the body and spirit.

So, in ancient times (the period BC), humanity has accumulated a wealth of experience in teaching, educating the younger generation. The greatest thinkers of antiquity, the philosophers Democritus (c. 470 or 460 BC), Socrates (469-399 BC), Plato (427-348 BC), Aristotle (384-322 BC) .e.) and others, reflecting on the nature of man, the ways of his improvement, lamenting the decline in morality in contemporary society, formulated the first pedagogical ideas, provisions, recommendations on the upbringing and education of children and young men. The sayings of the ancient philosophers that history has preserved for us, their works that have come down to our days, cannot yet be called pedagogical theories, attributed to the field of science. Philosophers themselves looked at pedagogy as the art of leading a child through life. Nevertheless, it should be noted that the first pedagogical views originated in the depths of philosophy and were the forerunners of pedagogy as a science.

The Middle Ages went down in history with the dominance of the church, a departure from the ancient ideals of education in all areas of spiritual life, including education and upbringing. However, the Middle Ages is a huge historical layer, covering more than twelve centuries, during which there was a lot of valuable pedagogical experience. It was during the Middle Ages that universities, which acted as centers of education and culture. The emergence of universities was, as it were, a response to the new requirements of society for the intellectual and spiritual development of the individual.

For the curious:

In 1148, the first university in Europe was opened in Bologna (Italy), which was distinguished by a democratic organization unique for the Middle Ages: students had the right to hire and dismiss teachers at their discretion, determine the duration of lectures, and participate in the election of the rector. In the XII century. Oxford University (England) arose in the 13th century. - University of Paris (France). The medieval university usually had four faculties: theological (theological), medical, legal and liberal professions (artistic).

In the works of thinkers, statesmen and religious figures of the Middle Ages F. Aquinas, F. Bacon, F. Rabelais, M. Luther, T. More, T. Campanella, E. Rotterdam and others, pedagogical teaching was further developed. Putting man at the center of their worldview, humanist thinkers emphasized the dependence of the moral and social progress of society on the quality of education that members of this society receive.

Nevertheless, the entire long period from ancient times to the 17th century. entered the history of pedagogy as a time of pre-scientific pedagogical creativity, empirical (based on experience) pedagogical practice.

Pedagogy as an independent branch of theoretical knowledge began to take shape in the 17th century. The fact is that by this time there was an urgent need for science, designed to improve the existing pedagogical practice, to expand the boundaries and possibilities of upbringing and education. The need for pedagogy as a science arose due to the following socio-economic reasons. 17th century was a time of great changes that the world was going through thanks to the era of great geographical discoveries, as a result of the rapid development of cities, the breaking of the medieval foundations of life. Add to this the flourishing of culture, science, the birth of industry, and so on. Education began to play a special role in people's lives, in all social development. With the improvement of the quality of education, the creation of a mass educational system, outstanding thinkers pinned their hopes on the progress of human society.

For the curious:

The tradition of school teaching, respect for literacy in Russia was very strong, despite the troubles associated with the Tatar-Mongol conquests. Thanks to the development of elementary schools by the 17th century, the level of literacy in Russia was high at that time, especially among the clergy and merchants. Merchants also studied foreign languages, hiring visiting foreigners for this. There were many women among the literate nobles. Primary schools operated throughout the country. Parents gave money for the school. The teacher was usually alone, but there were many children, and of different ages. Some learned letters and read in warehouses under the guidance of a teacher, while others wrote at that time. Each student received a task corresponding to the level of his training. Some of the children went home after school, but many parents found it useful for their children to live at the school. Wealthy nobles and merchants invited home teachers to their children, who usually spoke foreign languages.

In the 17th century The main textbook was the Primer, which was repeatedly reprinted by the Printing House in Moscow. In addition to the alphabet, grammatical rules and rules of conduct, primers contained prescriptions, articles on dogma, and short dictionaries. Numerous alphabets-copybooks for studying cursive writing existed separately. Often they included information on arithmetic, history, geography, philosophy, literature, mythology. Singing was an indispensable subject in elementary school: without acquaintance with "musicia" a person was not considered literate. Teaching did not end after leaving school: a person had to study from books all his life, for "books are rivers that fill the universe with wisdom."

The history of science is the history of people and the history of ideas. The formation of scientific pedagogy is associated with the name of the remarkable Czech humanist thinker, teacher Jan Amos Comenius (1592-1670). The merit of Ya. A. Komensky before mankind lies in the fact that he introduced radically new ideas into pedagogical thought, which fertilized its further development. What were these ideas?

The fundamental idea of ​​the pedagogy of Jan Amos Comenius is pansophism, i.e., the generalization of all the knowledge acquired by civilization and the communication of this generalized knowledge through the school in the native language to all people, regardless of social, racial, religious affiliation.

Ya. A. Comenius, the great humanist, made the optimistic statement that every child, with the appropriate organization of the educational process, can ascend to the “highest” rung of the “ladder” of education. Believing that knowledge should be useful in practical life, Ya. A. Comenius proclaimed the obligatory nature of real, socially useful education.

In the works of Ya. A. Comenius, a draft of a coherent system of general education is presented, questions are raised about a national school, about the plannedness of school affairs, about the correspondence of the levels of education to a person’s age, about teaching in their native language, about combining humanitarian and scientific and technical general education, about class - lesson system.

Based on what was obtained by previous generations, after analyzing the practice of preparing children for life, Ya. A. Comenius came to the conclusion that there are objective laws of the educational process, formulated laws, rules of education and training that have not momentary, but long-term perspective value . V The main book of his life, “Great Didactics” (1654), J. A. Comenius outlined the theoretical foundations of the educational process, in the image of which education is built in a modern school, a preschool institution.

With the scientific works of Ya. A. Comenius, a turbulent period in the development of classical pedagogical theory begins. A brilliant galaxy of subsequent classical teachers (J. Locke, J. J. Rousseau, I. G. Pestalozzi and others) significantly advanced the development of theoretical problems of education and training.

A worthy contribution to the creation of classical pedagogy was made by our compatriots: V. G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen, N. G. Chernyshevsky, N. A. Dobrolyubov, L. N. Tolstoy, N. I. Pirogov. KD Ushinsky (1824-1871) brought worldwide fame to Russian pedagogy. He created a coherent psychological and pedagogical concept of personality development and, on its basis, the theory of education and training.

V., marked by outstanding achievements, primarily in the field of natural science, physics, mathematics, was also favorable for the development of pedagogical science. During this period, it is intensively developing as an independent scientific discipline, rising from the description of facts and phenomena to comprehending the laws of the process of education and training. Within pedagogy, differentiation of knowledge is observed, its individual parts are singled out and isolated, such as, for example, preschool pedagogy.

v. with its turbulent socio-political changes in many countries, he posed the problem of educating a person in a new society for pedagogy. It was studied by S.T. Shatsky, P.P. Blonsky. The theoretical works of N.K. Krupskaya (1869-1939) cover a wide range of pedagogical problems, including those directly related to the upbringing of preschool children. The core of the teachings of A.S. Makarenko (1888-1939) is the theory of the educational team. Makarenko also developed the most important questions family education. The humane nature of upbringing and education, respect for the individual - such is the leitmotif of the pedagogical teachings of V. A. Sukhomlinsky (1918-1970).

So, the emergence and development of pedagogy as a science is associated with the practical need of society to study and generalize the historical experience of preparing new generations to participate in the production of material and spiritual values. Modern pedagogy is a special area of ​​​​the science of educating a person for all age stages its development.

Section 1. GENERAL FOUNDATIONS OF PEDAGOGY

Lecture 1. Pedagogy in the system of human sciences

The emergence and development of pedagogy

The term "pedagogy" comes from the Greek words "paidos" - a child and "ago" - to lead. In the literal translation, "pedagogy" means "children's guidance". In ancient Greece, a teacher was called a slave who led his master's child by the hand to a school where another slave, a scientist, was engaged in training. With the development of society, the role of the teacher changed significantly, the concept itself was rethought, it began to be used in a broader sense to refer to the art of leading a child through life: to teach, educate, develop spiritually and physically.

Pedagogy has gone through a long and difficult path of searching for truth, revealing the laws of education and upbringing, and has turned into a scientifically based system of knowledge, and in practice - into the art of using these laws, i.e. into the art of teaching and educating many generations of people. The creative interaction of theory and practice turns pedagogy into a science and an art.

Elements of pedagogy appeared with the birth of the process of education at an early stage in the development of society. Pedagogical commandments arose as a result of the formalization of pedagogical thought. They have come down to us in the form of proverbs, sayings, aphorisms, popular expressions. With the advent of writing, people's judgments began to take on the character of advice, rules and recommendations. This is how folk pedagogy was born, which included pedagogical ideas, views, ideas that were most fully manifested in customs, labor activity, traditions, and oral folk speech.

In the beginning, pedagogical knowledge was an element of philosophy. With the accumulation of facts, attempts were made to generalize the experience of education, to highlight the theoretical foundations that gave rise to pedagogy as a science. Its theorists were the major ancient Greek thinkers Socrates (469-399 BC), Plato (427-347 BC), Aristotle (384-322 BC), in the works which reflect the ideas and provisions related to the upbringing of a person, the formation of his personality.

During the Middle Ages, the church monopolized the spiritual life of society, giving education a religious orientation. The unshakable principles of dogmatic teaching, characteristic of the evil period, lasted for almost twenty centuries. And although among the leaders of the church were philosophers educated for their time, such as Augustine the Blessed (354-430), Thomas Aquinas (Aquinas) (1225-1274), who created works on education and training, pedagogical theory during this period was slightly enriched with new ideas.

A significant stage in the development of pedagogical thought is associated with the Renaissance, which gave rise to a number of bright thinkers, humanist teachers, among whom the Italian V. da Feltre (1378-1448), the Frenchman F. Rabelais (1494-1554), the Englishman T. More (1478 -1535). They systematized knowledge about how to educate and educate children, spoke out for universal, equal public education, for the comprehensive development of the individual and the combination of learning with labor, the German teacher W. Rathke (1571-1635) was one of the first in Europe to write a textbook for children and teaching aids for teachers.

The separation of pedagogy from philosophy and its design as an independent science dates back to the 17th century. and is associated with the name of the great Czech teacher J.A. Comenius (1592-1670). In his works, for the first time, the subject, task and main categories of pedagogy were defined, the idea of ​​universal education for all children was formulated and disclosed, regardless of the social status of parents, gender, religion, affiliation. Democratic ideas of Ya.A. Comenius are reflected in the work "Great Didactics", written on the experience of the folk schools of the southwestern lands of Russia, Czech and Slovak schools. The great merit of Ya.A. Comenius is that he first developed the basics of the class-lesson system.

The English philosopher and educator J. Locke (1632-1704) focused on the theory of education. In his Thoughts on Education, he outlined his views on the upbringing of a gentleman - a self-confident person who combines broad education with business qualities, firmness of moral convictions with grace of manners.

Leading French thinkers D. Diderot (1713-1784), C. Helvetius (1715-1771), P. Holbach (1723-1789), J.J. Rousseau (1712-1778), Swiss educator I.G. Pestalozzi (1746-1827) waged an uncompromising struggle against dogmatism, scholasticism in pedagogy, put forward a position on the decisive role of education and the environment in shaping the personality.

The works of Russian thinkers, philosophers and writers V.G. Belinsky (1811-1848), A.I. Herzen (1812-1870), N.G. Chernyshevsky (1828-1889), N.A. Dobrolyubova (1836-1861). Humanistic ideas were shared by outstanding teachers K.D. Ushinsky (1824-1870), N.I. Pirogov (1810-1881), L.N. Tolstoy (1828-1910), K.N. Wentzel (1857-1947) and others.

Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky is considered the founder of Russian pedagogical psychology and pedagogy. He argued that socio-economic conditions determine the nature of education. K.D. Ushinsky approached the understanding of education as a purposeful activity. He created a fundamental work on pedagogy "Man as a subject of education", textbooks for elementary school "Native Word" and "Children's World", methodological manuals for teachers. In his works, the most important problems of didactics, labor education, and school studies are considered. Many didactic statements retain their significance in our time.

Leo Tolstoy and Konstantin Nikolayevich Wentzel were prominent representatives of the theory of the "practice of free education" in Russia. L.N. Tolstoy opened a school for peasant children in Yasnaya Polyana, the task of which was to develop independence, creative and cognitive activity of the child. He wrote fascinating children's books for reading "ABC" and "New ABC".

A significant contribution to the development of pedagogical science was made by Nikolai Ivanovich Pirogov, who came up with advanced ideas about the essence and purpose of universal education.

P.F. Kaptereva (the doctrine of the pedagogical process), S.T. Shatsky (social pedagogy), N.K. Krupskaya (organization of out-of-class educational work, pioneer movement), A.S. Makarenko (the doctrine of the team), D.V. Zankov and D.B. Elkonina (developing learning theory), P.Ya. Galperin (the theory of gradual formation of mental actions), I.Ya. Lerner and M.N. Skatkina (the theory of the content of education and teaching methods), Yu.K. Babansky (optimization theory educational process) and etc.

Anton Semenovich Makarenko (1888-1939) put forward and tested in practice the principles of creating a children's team and their pedagogical leadership, developed methods of labor and family education, and the formation of conscious discipline.

New phenomena in pedagogical theory and practice arose during the Khrushchev thaw in the second half of the 1950s and early 1960s. During this period, the innovative activity of teachers, who enriched educational practice, unfolded. A significant contribution was made by V.A. Sukhomlinsky, I.P. Ivanov, E.G. Kostyashkin; K.N. Volkov, S.A. Gurevich, later I.P. Volkov, Sh.A., Amonashvili, N.P. Guzik and others.

Vasily Alexandrovich Sukhomlinsky (1918-1970) explored the moral problems of educating young people. Many of his didactic tips retain their significance at the present time in understanding modern ways of developing pedagogical thought and education.

The perestroika that began in your country in the 1980s affected all spheres of human activity: the political system, government, moral values, legal norms, cultural heritage, international relations, and public education. The main thing in the restructuring of education is a change in pedagogical thinking, the essence of which is a reorientation from authoritarian to democratic pedagogy.