Gemma with an in-depth image of the crossword puzzle. In-Depth Gemma: Intaglio or Cameo? Signet rings in history
The cameo is a symbol of exquisite beauty. This is a work of art, in which subtle grace, refinement of forms, beauty and perfection.
Cameos are ancient works of art that embody the ideal of the harmonious and beautiful created by man.
To tell the story of the cameo, let's define some terms that may be needed in our descriptions.
Glyptics- the art of stone carving.
Gemma- these are cameos and intaglios.
Cameos- carved stones with images in relief.
- stones or gems with an in-depth image. From ancient times they served as seals.
Already in the IV century BC. glyptic craftsmen carved lions, sphinxes, and scarab beetles in relief. But they were mostly monochrome cameos. At the beginning of the 3rd century BC. NS. multi-colored gems appear. For their execution, a multilayer stone - agate was used. The multi-layer, that is, the polychrome of the stones, allowed the craftsmen, using different colors of the layers, to achieve effects of extraordinary color and picturesqueness. Multi-layered agate emphasized the play of different tones and their shades, and by changing the thickness of, for example, a white layer of agate so that a dark lower layer was visible through it, it was possible to achieve different shades. Ancient craftsmen used Indian sardonyx, which was a combination of white, yellow with reddish and even brown shades, and Arabic, which was dominated by blue-black and bluish shades.
Where do cameos come from? - From Alexandria. The city that was founded in 322 BC. NS. Alexander the Great. It was here, at the mouth of the Nile River, that the skillful hands of Greek craftsmen made the great masterpieces of glyptics - a cameo with portraits of Ptolemy II and Arsinoe, the famous “Farnese cup”, “Ptolemy's cup” and many others.
And after the campaigns of Alexander the Great, new, varied in color and brightness, minerals began to be used in the manufacture of gems. Intaglio was more often used as a seal, and cameos became a luxury item. They were inserted into rings, diadems, crowns, adorned the clothes of kings, priests and nobles. Furniture, musical instruments, caskets and other expensive utensils began to be decorated with expensive oriental minerals. The products that have survived to this day, created by masters on the orders of the mighty of this world, amaze with their beauty and delicate artistic taste.
In ancient art, glyptic masters were held in high esteem. Many kings of Hellas had their own court stone carvers. Many of the nobility collected carved stones. For example, King Mithridates Eupator had a huge collection that was very famous.
Carving cameos is not an easy task, it required not only patience and great skill, but also the ability to see the pristine beauty in the stone, which only a brilliant master can reproduce. How great the labor of carving cameos can be explained. After all, the master worked and created images almost blindly, since many, such as agate, are hard enough, harder than metal, and in order to cut them, you need not a metal cutter, but abrasives, for example, "Naxos stone", corundum powder, diamond dust ... And when the master was grinding the image, the abrasive powder mixed with water and oil covered the drawing.
It took years of continuous work to make one cameo. And besides this, it was necessary to predict in advance, to see through the thickness of the mineral how its layers alternate, because they do not just run parallel, they bend, do not coincide, change the thickness - all this can destroy the conceived image. Therefore, a person could do this with a selfless love for beauty, with virtuoso skill. And the image was born slowly. However, the carvers were able to reproduce many antique paintings in stone - they turned out to be a kind of miniature painting gallery. Some of the cameos are copies of paintings by great painters that have been lost forever. The strength of the stone ensured the durability of the lost. Gone forever are the masterpieces of architecture, sculptures, the paintings of ancient painters have disappeared without a trace, and the ancient gems silently keep the beauty and secrets of bygone times.
The first gems in Russia began to be collected by Catherine II, who was seriously keen on this occupation. And once in a letter to one of the French enlighteners she writes: “My small collection of carved stones is such that yesterday four people barely carried two baskets with boxes, which contained barely half of the meeting; in order to avoid misunderstanding, know that these were the baskets in which we carry firewood in winter. " Access to the collection was limited, and not many people could see it. During the reign of Catherine II, up to 10,000 gems were collected.
Then the collection of the Hermitage continued to grow from the collections of the Russian nobility until 1917. And now the collection is growing. Not only archaeological expeditions contribute to this, but famous collections of gems from scientists-mineralogists are also transmitted. For example, the collection of the famous Soviet mineralogist G.G. Lemleina added more than 260 ancient gems to the Hermitage in 1964. It should be noted separately the world-famous cameo in the Hermitage collection, the Gonzago cameo, which appeared in Russia in 1814. The cameo was presented to Alexander I by Josephine Beauharnais, Napoleon's ex-wife. In 1542, the name of the owner of this cameo was first mentioned - the Duke of Mantua Gonzago. After the defeat of Mantua by Austria, the cameo began to travel. For four hundred years, it has changed its owners seven times. Now she is in the Hermitage.
The cameo was created by an unknown artist in the 3rd century. BC. in Alexandria. It depicts Ptolemy II and his wife Arsinoe. Portraying Ptolemy, the master emphasized his resemblance to Alexander the Great. On his shoulder the aegis of Zeus, the helmet of the monarch clearly repeats the helmet of the god Ares. On the heads of the rulers, laurel wreaths as a symbol of deification. The Gonzago Cameo is a fine example of stone painting. The master superbly and masterfully used all the layers of the stone. The profile of Ptolemy II seems to be highlighted with a bright light, while the profile of Arsinoe is visible in the shade of a bluish tint. In the uppermost brown layer, a helmet, hair, aegis are carved, and lighter blotches in this layer are used to create the heads of Medusa and Phobos that adorn the aegis. And that is not all. By changing the polish, the master gives the stone either bodily warmth or metallic sheen.
Many antique cameos are distinguished by their refinement and sophistication; mythological subjects can often be found on them. The extraordinary skill of the carvers is striking - their ability to depict complex multi-figured compositions, find the right pattern rhythm and give dynamism to miniature scenes. In addition to monarchs, copies of paintings by painters and mythological subjects, the heroic themes and pathos of images are captured in cameos. The Goddess of Victory is a favorite glyptic character.
The culture of Ancient Greece was also adopted by Rome. With the fall of the kingdom of the Ptolemies (30 BC) - the last power of Hellenism, many Greek masters gave their talent to the Julian-Claudian dynasty. A new style is born. Already preferred two-tone reliefs - white silhouettes against a dark background. The glyptic is becoming drier, more graphic and planar.
Epochs change, attitudes towards beauty change, sometimes cameos begin to remake, as if reinterpreting plots, subordinating them to the spirit of the times.
Cameos are not only beautiful works of art, but also a rich source of information about the material and spiritual culture of bygone times. The ancient world reached the highest peaks in the field of art, therefore, in subsequent eras, especially in the field of glyptics, many masters remained in the grip of this beauty and perfection, and their gems are imitations or copies of those that personified the ideal of painting in stone.
What cameos are in our modern world? Is there a place for them among the decorations?
Of course there is. And recently cameos have become especially popular. Today, as in the Victorian era, cameos are adorned with brooches, pendants, hairpins, and signet rings. Masters choose subjects not only ancient, but also modern. There is also a Breguet watch company that uses this technique, for example, in its Reine de Naples watches. The watch “Reine de Naples” was created by Abraham-Louis Breguet for the Queen of Naples Caroline Bonaparte-Murat. She was the younger sister of Napoleon I and the wife of his Marshal Murat.
Since this watch has not survived, its design was restored according to the descriptions in the company's archives. Almost 10 years ago, the clock of the Queen of Naples began to count down again. And then many more variants of these watches appeared, but the first model in the form of a cameo-daisy appeared in 2008. And now, on the eve of the bicentennial of the model, the Breguet brand has released unique versions of watches especially for Russia. A watch with cameos appeared, where Peter I on horseback, the profile of A.S. Pushkin, the image of George the Victorious. A seashell bas-relief in the upper part of the dial, the case bezel is decorated with diamonds, the case back is made of sapphire crystal. All watches listed are created in one copy.
And so, cameos are popular again and are a must-have item in the jewelry wardrobe. They combined the beauty of oriental minerals with the high genius of Hellas, the beauty of Man and Nature.
The word "glyptics" came into Russian from Greek. Literally translated, it means - "gouge" or "cut". Thus, the art of glyptics implies carving on ornamental, semi-precious and.
Glyptics is one of the oldest types of decorative and applied art, which required special knowledge and a high level of performance from the masters. Minerals with images carved on them are called gems. They have long been used as jewelry, seals, as well as talismans and amulets.
Types of gems
There are two types of gems, which differ in the peculiarities of the technique of execution:
- Intaglio- gems with an in-depth image.
- - precious or semi-precious stones with a convex, embossed image.
The difference between intaglios and cameos also lies in the fact that intaglios are monochromatic, and cameos are multi-colored and colorful. Both those and other types of gems have been used since ancient times for the manufacture of seals, jewelry, and decorative details for.
Features of making gems
Intaglio and cameos are made both on soft types of stones and on minerals of a high degree of hardness. All types of stones were processed by hand or using simple machines with rotating cutters. Among the soft types of stones, the following can be named, which are the most popular among the craftsmen:
- Steatite- This mineral is, in fact, a kind of dense talc. Steatite has many other names as well: wax stone, ice stone, talcochlorite, tulikivi (which means "hot stone" in Finnish), soapstone and wen.
Steatite seals - intaglios - Hematite Is a widespread iron mineral, one of the most important iron ores. Translated from Greek, the name of the mineral means "blood red". In common people, hematite is called red iron ore.
Brooch "Mirror Cameo" on hematite - Serpentine- This is the scientific name of the mineral popularly known as serpentine. A similar name was given to the stone for the fact that its color options are similar to the color of snakeskin.
Cameo - pendant "Tulips" from solid serpentine To create intaglios and cameos, the ancient craftsmen did not need too complex equipment. A set of durable cutters, a special machine and some types of abrasive substances, which were used to apply images to very hard types of minerals, were enough, among which the following can be called:
- Agate- is one of the varieties of quartz, and is a mineral with a banded color, which is often formed into an eye-shaped pattern. Very beautiful jewelry is made from agate.
Cameo - pendant "Goldfish" from solid agate - Cornelian- is one of the varieties of chalcedony. The mineral can be orange, yellow - brown, bright yellow, orange - red and pink - red.
Carnelian cameo "The Enchanted Castle" - Garnet - belongs to the group of minerals and represents transparent, very beautiful stones of dark and blood-red color - almadines and pyropes.
- Chalcedony- is one of the varieties of quartz. A translucent mineral can be colored in different colors, and each mineral is called in its own way: red - carnelian, brown - red - sardine, greenish - chrysoprase, blue - sapphirine, matte dark green with red stripes - heliotrope.
- Rhinestone- is pure silicon dioxide of natural origin. Due to the absolute transparency and high decorative properties of the mineral, it has long been used for the production of jewelry and luxury goods. Currently, ordinary, artificial crystal or specially processed glass can also be used for the manufacture of cameos and intaglios.
- Sardonyx- is a kind of the famous mineral onyx. Sardonyx is characterized by a coloration with alternating layers of reddish brown and white.
To work with these minerals, abrasives were used because ordinary metal tools were not suitable for processing them, since they could not even scratch their surfaces.
In addition, cameos and intaglios can be made on ivory, cut glass or marble.
Cameo "Girl" on marble Thus, glyptics is the art of carving on precious, semi-precious and ornamental stones. This is one of the oldest forms of art that has its origins in ancient times.
Many samples of relief images on minerals have survived to this day, because the exceptional strength of the material made them truly eternal works of art, on which time practically does not have its destructive effect.
Intaglio "Prelest" Intaglio in the form of seals was quite difficult to make, because the plot or drawing depicted on them had to appear in the opposite, mirror form. In addition, the products were, as a rule, of a very small size, so the master could be engaged in the manufacture of one intaglio for a long time.
Ancient glyptics
The skill of stone carving was already known to the Egyptians and Assyrians. The gems of Ancient Egypt, Sumer, Babylon and Assyria amaze with their grace and extraordinary beauty.
The oldest works of glyptics, created in Mesopotamia and Egypt, date back to the 4th millennium BC, which indicates a high level of development of crafts in these states. These were mainly seals - intaglios, the prints of which are compositions on mythical themes.
More ancient works of glyptics are also known. These are the famous gems of Urartu, created in the 9th-7th centuries BC. Iranian gems are also known, the manufacture of which dates back to the 6th-5th centuries BC.
The seals of Ancient Egypt usually took the form of a sacred beetle - a scarab. On their underside, hieroglyphs or images of mythical characters were carved. But on the gems of Crete (III-II millennium BC), portraits of people first appeared.
The art of glyptics reached its heyday in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. It was here that unique samples of products from precious and semiprecious stones were created, which today amaze with their grace and subtlety of work.
Greek gems often had the shape of a scarab borrowed from Egypt. In the 5th - 4th centuries BC, forms of antique glyptics developed, which are usually called classical. Gems of that time depicted figures of gods and heroes, animals and birds, as well as popular scenes from mythology.
Until the 4th century BC, the manufacture of intaglios was widespread - a kind of type of gems that gave convex mirror images on prints in soft wax or plastic clay.
And only the ancient Greek masters first mastered the art of making carved relief cameos, which became real works of painting in stone. In the Hellenistic era, the art of glyptics flourished not only in the mainland of the ancient Greek state, but also on individual islands - Cyprus, Samos, Chios, Melos, as well as in the Ionian cities. The beautiful cameos, skillfully executed by Greek stone carvers, were primarily used as jewelry.
During this period cameos from the multi-layered semi-precious stone sardonyx came into fashion. These products often reached considerable sizes. Therefore, such paintings in stone could well be used to decorate living quarters.
At the palaces of monarchs, portrait glyptics became extremely popular, some samples of which have survived to this day and gained worldwide fame. Among them can be called a cameo depicting the ruler of Egypt - King Ptolemy II.
Also widely known all over the world received "Cameo Gonzaga", on which were applied relief images of King Ptolemy II Philadelphus and his wife Arsinoe II. This work of carved art was made in the 3rd century BC. Today the cameo is kept in Russia, in the museum collection of the Hermitage. The Gonzaga cameo is made of three-layer sardonyx, and is a paired portrait of the royal spouses, who by their origin were brother and sister.
The cameo of Emperor Constantine, made of sardonyx in the 4th century AD, is of great interest for its artistic performance. Today this unique work is on display in the Hermitage Museum.
The subjects of the plots depicted by the most ancient masters are diverse and cover various spheres of life. In intaglios and cameos one can see the reflection of the spiritual and material world of our ancestors, their religious beliefs, the development of culture and the most important political events, as well as images of famous people of that time.
The beautiful appearance of the great commander Alexander the Great is also captured in a cameo of amazing beauty. At the moment, the unique piece is in the Paris Cabinet of Medals.
Famous masters of the art of glyptics
Almost every historical period has had its own remarkable masters of glyptics. The famous Greeks Agatop, Solon and Dioscurides worked in ancient Rome. In the Middle Ages, the art of glyptics developed in Byzantium, the Middle East and China.
In Western Europe, glyptics revived during the Renaissance, in which the leading role belonged to Italian masters. Among them are Bellini, Jacopo da Trezzo, who not only copied antique samples, but also created portraits of their contemporaries.
The last flowering of the art of glyptics was observed in the period from the 18th to the beginning of the 19th centuries, in the era of classicism. At that time, everyone was talking about the skill of the Italian carvers, Pichlers. In Germany there was the famous carver Nutter, and in France - Jacques Hue.
In Russia, the most famous carvers of this time were Esakov, Shilov and Dobrokhotov. In the 19th century, the art of glyptics again fell into decay, although people continued to admire and admire the works of ancient masters.
However, the coming XXI century has made its own adjustments, and carving on precious stones has again become a popular form of art. In particular, cameos and intaglios are very popular in jewelry these days.
Modern stone carvers in their art are in no way inferior to the most ancient masters - on the contrary, many modern tools and technologies have appeared in their arsenal, which greatly facilitate the process of processing stone, and applying the most delicate and graceful images to it.
An alternative name for the star is Alfecca. Big Astronomical Dictionary
Miniature carved stones and shells with relief images of female and male figures, as well as various allegorical paintings, war scenes, animals and birds are called gems. A carved stone with an in-depth image is called intaglio, with a convex one - a cameo.
Gemmas, made on semi-precious stones and colored stones, have survived to our times in excellent preservation, having survived the temples, palaces, sculptures and other monuments of art created at the same time.
Glyptics is the art of miniature carving on colored stones and semi-precious stones (the name comes from the Greek word for glypto - I cut out), glyptics has been familiar to people since ancient times.
The oldest known gems are the intaglio of Egypt and Mesopotamia, made at a high technical and artistic level, dating back to the 1st millennium BC. NS.
Multicolor cameos
At the end of the IY - the beginning of the III century. BC NS. cameos appear... These are convex relief multicolored carved stones, most often carved on sardonyx, a multilayer agate consisting of alternating white and brown stripes. The master uses the multi-layered stone in his work.
The multicolor cameos were the innovation that distinguished them from the traditional monochromatic intaglio and the few convex gems of Ancient Egypt. In their works, the carvers achieved interesting pictorial effects and enhancement of the relief of stones, skillfully using for this various colors of the layers of sardonyx, combining contrasting bright colors or creating gradual transitions from black through various shades of brown to bluish gray and white. Such works are striking in their skill of execution and artistic taste.
Carved stones - seals
Carved stones were originally used as amulets and ornaments, then sacred stones with images and symbols turned into emblems of their owner, especially in the distant past, where he played a special role. In Egypt and Mesopotamia, people did not know locks and keys. In all cases, they used seals... Seals were placed on letters, official and private documents, on caskets with property, vessels with food products, amphorae with wine and oil, on the outer and inner doors of houses. The doors of the tombs of the Egyptian pharaohs were also sealed.
The ancient Greeks and Romans were already familiar with locks and keys, but the custom of imposing a seal was nevertheless preserved. And in those days, there were cases of violation of personal property rights, so Solon's code of laws included prohibiting carvers from leaving impressions of the seals cut by them ... This was a measure aimed at eliminating forgeries and abuse of seals.
Gemmas as works of art
Gemmas in the ancient world won love as works of art.
Pliny the Elder wrote about the musician Ismenia, who had agents who came to the market and bought gems in all the surrounding area and even in distant Cyprus. He did not spare money, he was afraid only of rivals like him, connoisseurs of carved stone.
Many Hellenistic kings patronized glyptics:
Antique carved stones - gems - are not only beautiful as works of art, but also serve as a source of knowledge about the ancient world and its culture. They depict copies of statues and paintings famous in antiquity, the originals of which in many cases have not survived and have not reached our times, but they can be restored from images on gems.
The gems also reflect the life of ancient society: scenes of hunting and war, the rich and the poor, barbarians and Greeks, athletes and actors, poultry and animals. Of particular interest are portraits of famous statesmen, artists and writers.
The seals also depicted the gods, those whom they considered their patrons - Aphrodite, Hermes, Nika, Eros. Images of the state gods - Zeus, Demeter, Apollo and others, are rare.
Cameos as luxury items
Unlike intaglio, cameos were luxury goods and had no practical value.
At the courts of the Hellenistic kings, which were distinguished by wealth and splendor, began to emerge and develop new, more complex type of glyptic... The technique of carving on solid stone has also become more perfect.
Cameos were then mainly a feminine item. They were inserted into brooches, medallions, pendants, rings, and strung into necklaces.
Superstition
Many superstitions have been associated with many gems. This was especially pronounced in the works of glyptics of the last centuries of the Roman Empire, when the pagan religion was replaced by Christianity. At this time, the carved stone becomes an amulet.
The collection of gems of the Hermitage contains carved sardonyx. On one side of it, the figure of a flying Perseus is carved, holding the head of a medusa in one hand, and a sword in the other. On the reverse side of the gem, an inscription in Greek is carved: Run gout - Perseus is following you. It seems funny today. :-)
Gemmas in the East
In the East, gems also played an important role in people's lives. So, in Iran under the Sassanids, the shah bestowed upon his courtier when he was approved in a military, civil, priestly office, the regalia of future power:
- hat,
- ring with a seal.
The personal seal of the courtier was obligatory on business papers, letters, orders and orders.
A portrait of a priest or nobleman with all his regalia was often carved on service seals.
Signet rings in history
Arab and Persian historians loved to describe the rings in detail. It was believed that colored gemstones inserted into them possessed mystical powers and could influence the fate of people.
Damage to the stone was considered a bad sign.
The importance of the ring for an enlightened Persian can be judged from excerpts from the 11th century. Nouruzname (Book about the New Year) given in the book by A.Ya. Borisov and V.G. Lukonina Sassanian gems. L., ed. State Hermitage Museum, 1963: The ring is a very good decoration, and on the finger it is appropriate.
The nobles say: not a man who does not have a ring ... A noble's letter without a seal is from weakness of reason and impure thoughts, and a treasury without a seal is from neglect and imprudence.
Stone carving craftsmanship
Carving on solid stone demanded extraordinary diligence and skill from the ancient master. With the help of a knife and a borav, seals were manually carved in Ancient Egypt, Crete and Mesopotamia.
From the YI century BC NS. the stone began to be processed on a special machine, which was set in motion by a bow.
Agate, like most of the minerals used in glyptics, is harder than steel, so the stone was cut with a metal cutter using an abrasive. For centuries, emery from the island of Naxos in the Aegean Sea served as such an abrasive. And only after the campaign of Alexander the Great to India did the Greeks begin to use a diamond saw and diamond dust. They had to cut blindly, without seeing the stone. Under an opaque layer of oil and diamond dust, one could miss an important feature in the decorativeness or structure of the stone. The magnifying glass was not yet known at that time. But the ancient masters created, despite enormous difficulties and primitive techniques, wonderful works of art.
The carver spent months and even years of hard work creating just one cameo.
Glyptic researchers say that making a large cameo took about the same time as building a cathedral!!
Middle Ages
In medieval Europe, glyptics fell into complete decline. Its new rise began in the Renaissance in Italy and soon spread throughout Europe.
The heyday of the glyptic lasted from the middle of the XYIII to the middle of the XIX century. At this time, many lovers of carved stone appeared.
At that time, crowned persons, aristocrats, scientists, and artists were engaged in collecting gems. Those who could not buy gems for themselves collected at least casts from them.
The introduction of the outstanding gems on the market was an important event. For example, about the purchase of a wonderful antique cameo by Ekatirina II from the widow of the German artist Anton Raphael Mengs spoke in Rome for several years... Goethe, while living in Rome, also became interested in collecting gems. Leaving for Germany, he acquired a collection of casts from the best antique gems and said that this was the most valuable thing that could be taken away from Rome.
The huge demand for gems led to the fact that skillful carvers enjoyed extraordinary popularity and demand, felt independently even among the crowned heads. The behavior of an Italian carver of the early 19th century is characteristic. Benedetto Petrucci in the palace of the Grand Duchess of Tuscany, sister of Napoleon I, who ordered him a cameo depicting members of her family.
Petrucci was summoned to Florence to the Duchess's court. I, he wrote, found the duchess and her little daughter sitting at the table at breakfast. The entire courtyard was present while standing. As soon as the Duchess saw me, she tilted her head in my direction, and one of the chamberlains told me that I could begin. I was not yet used to the courtyard, so I took a chair next to the duchess, on which lay her poodle. Ignoring him, I turned the chair over and knocked the dog to the floor. The unfortunate animal, not accustomed to such treatment, began to bark, after which the Duchess threw a look at me full of anger, and a whisper ran across the hall. But he pretended not to understand anything, sat down and began to work on the portrait. The courtiers - French and Italians - surrounded me so closely that I had almost no opportunity to work. Soon I gave the wax some form, and Marquis X, president of the Academy and chamberlain, approaching the duchess, told her that this was the first time he saw such a resemblance. She forgot the insult I had inflicted on her dog, and graciously wished to see my model. She laughed and asked the ladies if they really found a similarity, and after an affirmative answer she told me: Come tomorrow - I will give you one more session.
I will order that you be given a place in my palace and that you have nothing shortage.
Petruchio made wax models and then carved portraits of the Duchess, her daughter and husband on stones. Upon completion, he received many orders for portraits from courtiers, but the duchess, wanting Petrucci to work for her, allowed only a cameo to be carved depicting the daughter of the Spanish ambassador.
This episode was described by M.I. Maximova in the book Carved XYIII and XX centuries.